Plastic pollution has become one of the most critical and urgent threats to ocean health, affecting marine ecosystems from the surface to the deepest seabed through biological and chemical impacts at both macro- and microscales. Each year, an estimated 8 to 11 million metric tonnes of plastic enter marine environments, where they persist for decades to centuries and continuously interact with seawater, organisms, and sediments. At the macroscale, large plastic debris, such as bags, bottles,...

Microplastic pollution has become a major environmental concern, receiving growing interest from scientists, policymakers, and the general public. While much attention has been given to the persistence and toxicity of plastics themselves, research has more recently suggested that microplastics may pose an additional and less visible risk: they can act as carriers for microorganisms, including potentially harmful pathogens. Once in the natural environment, microplastics are rapidly colonised...

Over the past decades, ocean plastic pollution has become one of the most urgent global environmental challenges.   Plastics continue to enter marine environments through a variety of pathways, accumulate and persist for long time periods in many different forms, from large items to microscopic fragments that are integrated into ecosystems and food chains. Most of the plastic entering the ocean originates on land. Mismanaged waste, especially single-use plastics such as packaging, bottles,...